3unit(s) Introduction to financial statements of business entities. Underlying principles and procedures. Measurement of periodic income and financial position.
Prerequisites: Sophomore standing and MATH 1500 or MATH 1410 or MATH 1552 or MATH 1910 (can be taken concurrently).
3unit(s) Analysis, use, interpretation, and synthesis of accounting and financial data for and by management for planning, control, and decision making purposes.
Prerequisites: ACC 2110 and MATH 1500 (or MATH 1410 or MATH 1552 or MATH 1910).
3unit(s) A study of basic personal financial planning principles in order to provide the students with a framework for making sensible decisions in the management of their personal financial resources. Covers material important for making rational consumption and investment decisions. The importance of tax, retirement, and estate planning practices and principles in wealth accumulation and transfers is emphasized. Not acceptable for concentration requirements.
4unit(s) Accounting for financial position and results of operations, cash, receivables, inventories, property, plant and equipment, other non-current assets, and current liabilities.
4unit(s) Accounting for bonds, other non-current liabilities, investments, stockholders’ equity, earnings per share, pensions, leases, accounting changes, error correction and changes in financial position.
ACC 3125 - Accounting Research and Communication (WP)
3unit(s) Research methods for accounting and effective presentation of information, both oral and written. Assignments use financial accounting issues covered in ACC 3110 and 3120.
4unit(s) Theory and practice of cost accounting, including costing manufactured products, planning and control of operations, budgeting, standards, and relevant quantitative techniques.
Prerequisites: ACC 2130; MATH 1500 (or MATH 1410 or MATH 1552 or MATH 1910) and MATH 1610 (or MATH 1600 or MATH 1553 or MATH 1602).
3unit(s) Course teaches students the fundamental concepts of healthcare finance, including both accounting and financial management. It is designed for students of Health Science; it does not count as an elective course in the MBA program.
4unit(s) Accounting for business combinations, international accounting standards, consolidated financial statements, foreign operations, industry segments, financially distressed companies, partnerships, governmental units, and other non-profit entities.
Prerequisites: ACC 3120 and ACC 3140, or consent of instructor.
4unit(s) Standards and procedures broadly applied to examination of
financial statements, including a consideration of the field of
public accounting, professional ethics, internal controls,
preparation of working papers, and audit reports.
4unit(s) Principles and concepts of federal income tax for individuals, corporations, and partnerships; underlying rationale; advance planning to minimize tax impact.
Satisfies G.E. area UD-D.
Prerequisites: ACC 2110 and MATH 1500 (or MATH 1410 or MATH 1552 or MATH 1910).
4unit(s) A study of the uses of computers in accounting. Topics include the software available to perform financial and managerial tasks, accounting system design, and the internal control problems associated with computerized systems. Includes extensive individual work using personal computers and accounting software.
4unit(s) Course provides the ethical grounding that accountants need both to identify ethical issues that they might face and to respond effectively to them. Students will be introduced both to the major theoretical ethical reasoning models and the ethical principles included in the Codes of Professional Conduct disseminated by the major accounting organizations, such as the AICPA and IMA. The course will present a range of ethics-related issues, including the causes of ethical violations and frauds, whistle blowing, and the design and operation of company compliance and ethics programs.
3unit(s) Supervised field experience in a selected area of accounting.
Formal written report(s) will be required. May be repeated for a total of 6 units.
Prerequisites: Consent of internship coordinator prior to registration.
3unit(s) An introduction to data analysis using an analytic approach with accounting specific platforms. Focuses include extracting, transforming, and loading data; querying databases, visualizing data, and applying statistical concepts in accounting settings.
Prerequisites: BUS 5040 and ACC 5110 (may also be taken concurrently).
3unit(s) The principles, concepts, and conventions employed in measuring business transactions and analyzing, interpreting, and reporting results to management and other users of financial information.
3unit(s) The application of managerial accounting techniques and procedures to the solution of managerial problems in all functional areas of business.
Prerequisites: ACC 5070 or admission to the EMBA Program.
3unit(s) Advanced course in taxation with emphasis on corporations, partnerships, estates, trusts, gifts, international taxation problems, and tax administration and practice.
3unit(s) A study of the tax factors related to business and investment decisions. The emphasis is on the role of tax planning in maximizing after-tax return.
3unit(s) Course will cover tax research methods and strategies, along with communication of tax research results. Students will learn how to find a satisfactory answer to a tax issue and how best to communicate results to a client.
ACC 5185 - Forensic Accounting and Fraud Investigations
3unit(s) Course will cover common fraud schemes committed by employees and officers of entities, and how to mitigate the risks of theft and embezzlement. Students will learn how to conduct a forensic accounting investigation to determine financial losses, and to testify in court as to their findings.
3unit(s) A terminal graduate project to be taken by students who have completed their course requirements. The project proposal must be approved by the project adviser(s). Refer to the MBA Individual Project guidelines listed on the MBA website.
Prerequisites: Students must have completed all course requirements.
3unit(s) Introduction to agricultural accounting and application of basic accounting principles to agricultural production. Covers compilation and analysis of accounting information relevant and applicable to agricultural operations, with specific focus on farm financial performance.
3unit(s) Introductory course in the basic principles of agricultural economics. Students learn production economics, consumer theory, principles of supply and demand, price elasticity, market structure in the farm and ranch sector, resource economics, marketing of agricultural products, and agricultural public policy.
AGEC 3250 - Quantitative Methods in Agricultural Science
3unit(s) Application of quantitative methods in data description, analyses and interpretations in applied sciences. Specific focus is on application of a battery of quantitative principles and techniques in solving problems in agriculture and related sciences. Open to Juniors and Seniors only, or with instructor’s approval.
Prerequisites: MATH 1600, 1602, 1610, or 1620 with at least a grade of C- or consent of instructor.
3unit(s) Economic principles and modern decision-making techniques applied to farm management; organization and operation of farm and ranch businesses, analysis of production risks and evaluation of the business for increased efficiency and profit.
3unit(s) Fundamentals of managing agricultural risks through the futures and options markets. The mechanics of trading in the futures market.
Prerequisites: MATH 1600 OR MATH 1602 or equivalent, ECON 2500 and ECON 2510; and a lower division accounting course or consent of instructor. An agricultural economics course may be substituted for ECON 2510.
3unit(s) The course is an introductory course focused on the economics of markets in agriculture and related industries. The course will also introduce marketing aspects of the agricultural industry and an overview of the structure and institutional aspects of both domestic and global marketing systems.
3unit(s)Formerly FIN 4320. Principles of agricultural appraisal with focus on row crops, orchards, livestock, and transitional properties; physical and economic factors affecting property values; estimation of real estate value using income, cost, and market data approaches; case studies and field problems involving the valuation of local farm and ranch properties.
Prerequisites: ECON 2500 and ECON 2510, or equivalent: and junior standing.
Prerequisites: ECON 2500 and ECON 2510 and a lower division accounting course or consent of instructor. An agricultural economics course may be substituted for ECON 2510.
3unit(s)(Offered under the subjects ECON and AGEC) Resource allocation and decision making environment of agricultural markets; study of the complex issues in agriculture and related markets including market structures, international trade, resource use, and government agriculture policy.
Prerequisites: ECON 2500 and 2510 or consent of instructor.
3unit(s)(Offered under the subjects ECON and AGEC) Application of economic principles to the financing of agricultural operations. Analysis of agricultural financial statements and ratios; institutional sources of farm credit; legal aspects of credit; time value of money and capital budgeting for agricultural investment; risk management strategies; insurance, tax, and estate planning.
Prerequisites: ECON 2500 and ECON 2510; and a lower-division Accounting course or consent of instructor. An Agricultural Economics course may be substituted for ECON 2510.
AGEC 4930 - Strategic Management of Agribusiness Firms
4unit(s) Application of basic economic and management concepts to decision making in agribusiness firms. Problem solving strategies involving quantitative and conceptual analyses of production, investment, pricing, change, human resources and risk management decisions are covered.
Prerequisites: ECON 2500 and ECON 2510; and a lower division accounting course or consent from the instructor. An agricultural economics course may be substituted for ECON 2510.
3unit(s) Students are introduced to the diverse field of agricultural science and agricultural systems and practices across the world. Students will gain an understanding of the evolution of agriculture and how that has affected the environment. Emphasis will be on California agribusiness operations specifically, and the US and world agriculture in general.
4unit(s)(Offered under the subjects AGST and GEOG) An introductory course in soil science that focuses on the study of soils as natural bodies, as media for plant growth, and as components of the larger ecosystems. The course presents and discusses the nature of soil as it functions as a system, the formation and genesis of soils, the nature and properties of soil solids, chemical composition and reactions of soils, interaction between solid, liquid, and gaseous components of soils, classification and the distribution of soils on the landscape, and the management of conservation of soil resources.
AGST 2100 - Professional Development in Agriculture
3unit(s) Professional development including leadership concepts, interpersonal skills, team interaction, and service learning activities, through a variety of formal instruction and events/activities. Development of a professional Portfolio for lifelong career development. This course is designed for Agriculture majors.
AGST 2200 - Principles of Horticulture and Practices
3unit(s) An introduction to the principles and practices of horticulture for the development, production, and use of horticultural crops (fruits, vegetables, nursery, floral, and landscape). Students will learn about the classification, structure, propagation of plants, and environmental influences on horticultural plants.
AGST 3000 - Agriculture, Society, and the Natural World
3unit(s)(Formerly Agriculture, Environment, and Society) The Sociology of Agriculture presented through an examination of relationships between societies and their environments, economics, and agriculture. Emphasis on the analysis of agriculture’s use of technology and the corresponding impact on the environment, economy, and society.
AGST 3100 - Leadership and Labor Issues in Agriculture
3unit(s)(Formerly Professional Development in Agriculture II) Introduces students to leadership and labor issues in the food and agriculture industry. The course provides students with an overview of labor productivity and practices pertinent to agribusiness and farm operations. Students will observe, practice, and develop leadership skills necessary to succeed as managers in a variety of agricultural settings.
4unit(s) Students will learn about the biology and ecology of common weed species, and compare the effectiveness of methods used in modern weed management systems. Specific emphasis will be placed on sustainable practices. Open to Juniors and Seniors only.
Prerequisites: AGST 2200, or BIOL 1050 and BIOL 1150, or consent of instructor.
4unit(s) Introduction to the theory, principles, and practice of integrated pest management systems in major agronomic and horticultural crops. Analysis of ecological patterns and mechanisms of agro-ecosystems with emphasis on biodiversity linkages between plant, weeds, pests, and diseases. Course will include: identification and symptoms of plant pest; intraguild predation; modes of pesticide action; pesticide resistance; plant induced resistance mechanisms; effective and safe use of herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, and other crop protection chemicals.
Prerequisites: BIOL 1050, BIOL 1150, and ENTO 3000; or consent of instructor.
AGST 3950 - Tree and Fruit Crop Production and Management
3unit(s) Current principles and cultural practices of tree fruit and nut production, and vine fruit production in California and in other regions of the World. Major emphasis will be on practical aspects of production and management practices based on a foundation of the underlying biology and physiology of the plants.
Prerequisites: BIOL 1050 or equivalents and consent of instructor.
4unit(s) Students will learn how to produce a wide variety of vegetables to maximize yield and quality with an emphasis on sustainable, environmentally-friendly production practices. Students will also learn alternative production techniques for vegetables, crop climate conditions, physiological growth and development, and harvesting and storage, through class and field activities.
Prerequisites: BIOL 1050 or equivalent agriculture course or consent of instructor.
3unit(s) The study of natural resource sustainability in agriculture integrating theoretical aspects of agricultural sustainability with field-based exercises. (Offered under the subjects GEOG and AGST)
3unit(s) Introduction to geographic origins, diffusions, distributions, and patterns of global viticulture. Emphasis on complex relationships existing between environmental variables, such as climate, soils and landforms, and human factors such as cultural practices. Examines characteristics of wine regions and landscapes. (Offered under the subjects GEOG and AGST)
4unit(s) Students will analyze the environmental, social, and economic interconnections within various types of agricultural systems. Students will learn the ecological processes regulating soil-water-plant relationships and examine biotic and abiotic interactions in sustainable farming practices. Open to Juniors and Seniors only.
Prerequisites: AGST 2200 or BIOL 1050 and BIOL 1150 or equivalents, and AGST 2014 or equivalents, or consent of the instructor.
AGST 4450 - Research Methods in Agricultural Science (WP)
3unit(s) Examination of the process of scientific investigation and the communication of research findings in the context of agricultural research. The course balances the development of a conceptual framework for scientific research with the development of applied research skills.
1-4unit(s) Supervised work in an agriculture-related agency or business, designed to emphasize technical and employability skill development including construction of a professional portfolio. The experience will be under the joint supervision of the employer and faculty member. A total of 45 hours per unit of credit. Course may be repeated for up to 8 units total.
Prerequisites: Junior or senior-level Agricultural Studies major and consent of instructor.
1-5unit(s) Review of different topical issues in the food and agriculture industry. Topics may vary each semester. Different topics may be taken for credit. (Topics to be specified in the Class Schedule)
3unit(s) Seminar on different work experiences in agriculture industry. Students explore work opportunities with specific focus on the different sectors of agriculture. Open to Seniors only.
1-4unit(s)May be repeated for a total of 9 units. For students capable of independent work and in need of advanced or specialized study in the agriculture field.
3unit(s) Introduction to the study of human culture and social institutions, with special emphasis on band, tribal, chiefdom, and state/peasant societies.
Satisfies G.E. area D2 and the Multicultural Requirement.
3unit(s) An introduction to the field of biological anthropology from genetic, evolutionary, behavioral, and cultural perspectives. Topics include the study of nonhuman primates, the fossil record of human evolution, techniques of forensic anthropology, paleopathology, human variation, and adaptability.
3unit(s) Introduction to prehistory and culture growth; the basic theories, methods, and goals of archaeology; cultural and historical reconstructions based on the interpretation of data recovered from worldwide archaeological contexts.
3unit(s) An examination of the ways in which cultural anthropology can offer contemporary Americans a broad understanding of national/world events and problems. Global issues treated include the Third World, development, poverty and culture, education in modern society, the environment, and social change.
Satisfies G.E. area UD-D and the Multicultural Requirement.
3unit(s) A survey of the great discoveries of the biological and cultural nature of humankind: past, present, and future. A study of evidence for early humans, “lost” civilizations, the decipherment of ancient languages, Stone Age people “discovered” in recent times, and the many great discoveries concerning the development of culture and social institutions in the study of bands, tribes, and civilizations of humankind.
3unit(s) Through archaeological and ethnographic information, students will study past and present cultures and important landmarks in the development of civilization. The dynamic discipline of anthropology provides valuable insights into the past and meaningful solutions for modern human problems. Designed specifically for future teachers (LIBS Integrative Inquiry).
3unit(s) Examines dietary diversity, food in social relationships, health and disease, and the behavioral and biological repercussions of food choice and availability by studying the archaeological record and the evolution of the human diet.
Satisfies G.E. area UD-D and the Multicultural Requirement.
3unit(s) Introductory survey course to the peoples and cultures of the amazon region. The course will introduce students to the diverse peoples of the Amazon by focusing on the environment in which they live and the resources which have shaped their lives. The course will have a strong interdisciplinary approach, and integrate the disciplines of geography, ecology, economy, and religion, among others, into readings and coursework.
Satisfies G.E. area UD-D and the Multicultural Requirement.
3unit(s) An ethnographic survey of selected contemporary and traditional societies and cultures of sub-Saharan Africa. Emphasis is placed on the varied effects of Western European culture on the peoples studied as well as the ongoing process of change in traditional customs and cultures.
Satisfies G.E. area UD-D and the Multicultural Requirement.
Prerequisites: ANTH 2060 recommended or junior standing.
3unit(s) An ethnographic survey of selected contemporary societies in the Caribbean. Emphasis is placed on the relationship this region has had to the engagement between Western and non-Western cultures.
Satisfies G.E. area UD-D and the Multicultural Requirement.
3unit(s) An ethnographic survey of selected societies in Latin America. Emphasis is placed on the relationship this region has had to the engagement between Western and non-Western cultures.
Satisfies G.E. area UD-D and the Multicultural Requirement.
3unit(s)(Formerly ANTH 3101) (Formerly Cultures of the Pacific) An ethnographic (cultural) survey of the native societies of the Pacific (Oceania) including Australia, Melanesia, Indonesia, and the Philippines, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Cultural change is emphasized as well as native traditions.
Satisfies G.E. area UD-D and the Multicultural Requirement.
3unit(s)(Formerly ANTH 3101) Examines the cultural diversity of Asian countries: China, Japan, Korea, the Philippines, India, and Southeast Asia. It is taught from the perspective of cross-cultural interaction between dominant and minority ethnic groups.
Satisfies G.E. area UD-D and the Multicultural Requirement.
ANTH 3200 - Anthropological Studies of U.S. Cultures
4unit(s) In addition to their study of the world’s exotic, remote,
small-scale societies, anthropologists have recently begun to look
at their own American culture and its institutions. Uses films,
class discussions, lectures, and contemporary authors to examine
American culture, i.e., world view, values, religion, marriage,
family, enculturation, political, medical, and economic systems
from the perspective of anthropologists at home.
Prerequisites: ANTH 2060 recommended or junior standing.
ANTH 3250 - Anthropological Perspectives on Global Health
3unit(s) Course introduces students to anthropological perspectives on a variety of issues within global health. Students will learn to apply anthropological theories and methods to both global and local issues related to well-being.
Satisfies G.E. Area UD-D and the Multicultural Requirement.
ANTH 3260 - Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Problems
3unit(s) Course examines human causes and impacts of global environmental problems, such as climate change and deforestation, and explores alternative paths for sustainable stewardship of the environment.
Satisfies G.E. area UD-D and the Multicultural Requirement.
3unit(s)(Formerly The American Indian) An ethnographic (cultural) survey of selected contemporary and
traditional Native American (American Indian) societies.
Specifically included are the Canadian and United States groups
with some emphasis placed on California cultures.
3unit(s) An ethnographic (cultural) survey of selected contemporary and
traditional native Latin American folk (peasant) societies of
Mexico, the Caribbean, Central and South America. Specifically
included are Nahua (Aztec), Zapotec, Maya, Quechua (Inca), and
other groups. Emphasis is placed on the varied effects of Western
European culture on the peoples studied as well as their
traditional customs and cultures.
3unit(s) A critical examination of the development of human societies through the anthropological study of the archaeological record. Emphasizes human prehistory from the Neolithic revolution through the development of complex societies up to European contact and colonialism. Explores how archaeologists integrate diverse theoretical perspectives and evidence from multiple disciplines to reconstruct past lifeways.
Prerequisites:ANTH 2090 or equivalent recommended.
3unit(s)(Formerly ANTH 3550) A general survey course designed to acquaint the student with the development of the pre-historic civilizations of Mesoamerica.
Satisfies G.E. area UD-D and the Multicultural Requirement.
3unit(s) An archaeological survey of the prehistory of South America, with an emphasis on the Inka and their antecedents. Students will trace cultural developments from the appearance of the first sedentary societies on the Pacific Coast, through the Chavin horizon, the Chimu state, and the Inka empire, up to the arrival of European explorers. The course investigates the interplay of politics, the environment, art, and culture in Andean prehistory.
Satisfies G.E. area UD-D and the Multicultural Requirement.
Prerequisites: ANTH 2090 (or equivalent) is recommended.
ANTH 3575 - North American and California Archaeology
3unit(s) Survey of prehistory of the American Indian from the New World to the Historic Period. Study of the archaeological sites, cultures and culture areas in the New World of north of Mexico and California. Emphasis on the relation of Indians and their environment in prehistoric North America, with special emphasis on California and the University service area.
3unit(s) Study of current methods in archaeology, emphasis on applied and
theoretical procedures in data sampling, collection, and
evaluation; survey of method and theory in excavation of
archaeological sites; integration, analysis, and interpretation of
archaeological phenomena.
3unit(s) Course explores how humans survive and thrive in challenging environments, such as extreme heat and aridity, extreme cold, or high-altitude regions. Evolutionary, genetic, ecological, demographic, and cultural explanations for human biological adaptability and human plasticity are examined. Current research and case studies, focusing on the integration of social and biological approaches to the study of adaptability, will be examined.
Prerequisites: A lower division anthropology or biology course is suggested.
3unit(s) A critical examination of the fossil record of human evolution.
Emphasizes how the paleoanthropologist integrates relevant
archaeological, fossil, and molecular genetic evidence to
understand and interpret human biocultural evolution.
Prerequisites: Lower division course in anthropology or biology recommended.
3unit(s) Introduction to and description of non-human primates. Topics
include diet, habitat, locomotion, behavior, comparative anatomy,
and evolutionary history.
Prerequisites: ANTH 2080 or consent of instructor.
3unit(s) Survey of living nonhuman primate groups and their classification;
geographical distribution, feeding habits, reproduction, and social
behavior of these primates; the implications of nonhuman primate
behavior for the understanding of human behavior.
Prerequisites: ANTH 2080 or an introductory course in zoology or psychology.
ANTH 3900 - Anthropology of Gender and Sexuality (WP)
3unit(s)(Formerly Women: A Cross-Cultural View) (Offered under the subjects GEND and ANTH) Comparative study of traditional and changing gender and sexuality roles, expressions, and identities in a wide range of contemporary cultures. Satisfies upper division writing proficiency requirement.
Satisfies the Multicultural Requirement.
Prerequisites: ANTH 2060 recommended or consent of instructor.
1-2unit(s) A symposium on anthropology featuring speakers on their special areas of research, including current anthropological theories. Topics differ each term. May be repeated for no more than 4 units of credit towards the major.
Prerequisites: One lower-division anthropology class recommended or consent of instructor.
4unit(s) Course examines cultural representation through historical and contemporary visual media. Using anthropological frameworks, students produce ethnographic films.
4unit(s) Course introduces students to the ethnographic methods and techniques required for conducting field research in cultural anthropology. The course focuses on developing skills in ethnographic data collection methods such as participant observation and interviewing. Students also learn to analyze data through training in the use of different analytical tools, such as text analysis. During the semester students help design, develop and implement a research project.
Prerequisites: ANTH 2060 or equivalent recommended.
1unit(s) Students will travel independently to this natural urban setting
for a one-day guided lecture tour and field observation. San
Francisco’s Chinatown, the largest Chinese settlement outside Asia,
provides a unique opportunity to experience first-hand the
interface of an ancient and modern culture. Historical and
anthropological perspectives on the Chinese in America to be read
prior to the field trip. A field journal and short paper are required to complete the course.
3unit(s) Survey of processes and trends in urbanization from a
cross-cultural perspective. Emphasis will be on cities of the Third
World and multicultural urbanization in the west.
Prerequisites: ANTH 2060 recommended or consent of instructor.
4unit(s)(Formerly Comparative Religion) Anthropological approaches to the study of religious systems
including magic, witchcraft, ritual, symbolism, and dynamic
religious movements.
3unit(s) Study of family life from a cross- cultural perspective. Topics
covered include kinship structure; relationships between family
members; the treatment of children, youth, the aged, and women; and
the family’s role in various cultures.
Satisfies the Multicultural Requirement.
Prerequisites: ANTH 2060 recommended or consent of instructor.
3unit(s)(Formerly Business, Economics, and Anthropology) Study of the cultural dimensions of modern international business with consideration of economic systems of undeveloped traditional small-scale (tribal and peasant) societies.
3unit(s) A survey of political anthropology that considers both past and
present uncentralized (band, tribe, village, etc.) and centralized
(chiefdom and state) political systems. Emphasis is placed upon the
relationships between these various levels of political
organization among contemporary peoples and on changes resulting
from the incorporation of small scale societies into nation-states.
Prerequisites: ANTH 2060 recommended or consent of instructor.
ANTH 4200 - Applied Anthropology and Social Change
4unit(s) Study of changes resulting from contact between small-scale and
industrialized societies. Consideration will be given to processes
of social change and organized attempts to introduce change.
Prerequisites: ANTH 2060 recommended or consent of instructor.
3unit(s) Designed to provide an introductory overview of this new field
within the discipline of anthropology, the course will trace the
origins and scope of medical anthropology. Emphasis will be placed
on both Western and non-Western cultures in order to examine the
relationship between culture, health, and disease including the
analysis of health care delivery systems and the roles of medical
anthropologists within them.
Prerequisites: ANTH 2060 or consent of instructor.
3unit(s) A study of past and contemporary global issues with emphasis on the
so-called modernization process, especially technological and
agricultural development, industrialization and urbanization
population, environment, and security issues affecting the 5000
known cultural groups.
Satisfies the Multicultural Requirement.
Prerequisites: ANTH 2060 recommended or consent of instructor.
3unit(s) A survey of folk literature (oral traditions, mythology, legends, folk tales, etc.) and the traditional arts and material culture (art, symbols, cottage industries, etc.) of small-scale (tribal and folk or peasant) societies.